Tracing the Evolution of Hispanic & Latinx Representation in Hollywood from 'Golden Age' Stereotypes to Contemporary Stars
Happy National Hispanic Heritage Month! From now until October 15th, I'll be using my social media spaces to celebrate and highlight creatives of Hispanic and Latinx descent, and I hope you'll follow along!
To kick off this year's celebration, I wanted to examine the history of Hispanic representation in film. *Please note, I am not an expert but a film and history geek. This is in no way a comprehensive review of Hispanic cinema. If you want to learn more, I'd recommend checking out the additional resources below.
However, with 60+ million Americans identifying as Hispanic or Latinx—approximately 18% of the population—why is there such a lack of representation of these communities in Hollywood? While this is a layered issue with no simple answer, I do think that historical context is important.
But firstly, what is National Hispanic Heritage Month (NHHM)?
Presidential Proclamations and Recognizing Different Cultures
NHHM is a federally observed celebration from September 15th to October 15th that recognizes American citizens' histories, cultures, and contributions whose ancestors came from Spain, Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central and South America.
On June 11, 1968, California Congressman George E. Brown introduced House Joint Resolution 1299, which authorized the President to proclaim the annual "National Hispanic Heritage Week." President Lyndon B. Johnson signed it into law on September 17, 1968. President Ronald Reagan's administration expanded "National Hispanic Heritage Week" to a month-long celebration twenty years later.
On September 15th, we commemorate the independence of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua from Spanish colonial rule in 1821. This date marks a significant milestone in the history of these Central American nations as they emerged as sovereign states. Additionally, Mexico celebrates its independence on September 16th, while Chile commemorates its independence on September 18th. This period holds great historical and cultural significance for these countries, making September 15th the natural choice to mark the beginning of NHHM.
Early Hispanic Representation in Film
From cinema's humble beginnings in the 1890s to the early 1920s, there wasn't a solidified film industry as we know it today. Nearly any ambitious entrepreneur with capital could develop their own independent studio and start productions. During this period, Latinos from mostly economically privileged backgrounds and had predominantly Spanish ancestry (i.e., could pass as "European") were involved in filmmaking, both in front of and behind the camera, but the rise in popularity of this new form of entertainment also led to an increase in stereotyping.
One of the most popular genres was Westerns, which relied on white American audiences' nostalgia for a romanticized "Wild West" and familiarity with "Manifest Destiny." Manifest Destiny was a widely held cultural belief in the 19th century that American settlers were destined to expand across North America. Any group that threatened westward progress, such as Indigenous Native Americans or Mexicans post-1850, were characterized as adversaries.
In most silent films, Latino characters, mainly Mexican or Mexican American characters, were often portrayed as "lazy," "untrustworthy," or "aggressive" bandits or passionate, overly sexualized "Latin lovers." These characters were relegated to supporting roles and were rarely substantive. This tactic was another way to "other" Latino characters compared to their white counterparts and further established the concept of the white savior.
Frustrated by these offensive portrayals, Latin American countries began boycotting Hollywood films and invested in their own film studios; Mexico's Golden Age of Cinema lasted from 1930 to the 1960s. In response, Hollywood producers attempted to separate negative Latino characters from identification with any particular country, leading to generic, offensive "pan-Latino" representations.
From the Rise of Latino Stars in the 1920s to the Ugly Practice of "Brown Face"
Despite pervasive stereotypes, a few light-skinned Latino actors and actresses became international silent film stars, including Dolores Del Rio, Myrtle Gonzalez, Ramón Novarro, Gilbert Roland, and Lupe Velez in the 1920s. While they often still played stereotypical roles, it was significant progress for Latinos in the industry.
However, this momentum was hindered by the rise of the "talkies" in the 1930s, as Hispanic performers were often criticized for their "ethnic accents." They again were relegated to supporting roles, particularly servants, comedic relief, and villainous characters. With the onset of the Great Depression and the enforcement of the Hays Code throughout Hollywood, general audiences favored the All-American hero (i.e., white actors). This coincided with public sentiment that blamed and viewed foreigners and immigrants as "taking their jobs."
As such, most minor Latino-speaking roles were actually white actors in "brown face." This practice continued well into the 1960s, with some of the most prominent examples including Paul Muni as hotheaded Mexican American lawyer Johnny Ramirez in Bordertown (1935), Marlon Brando as Mexican revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata in Viva Zapata! (1952), and Natalie Wood as Puerto Rican teenager Maria in West Side Story (1961).
In the case of West Side Story, many of the actors playing Puerto Rican characters were forced to wear the same dark brown makeup—even Rita Moreno, who is Puerto Rican and played the character of Anita—ensuring that Maria would stand out.
"I remember saying to the makeup man one day―because it was like putting mud on my face, it was really dark and I'm a fairly fair Hispanic―and I said to the makeup man one day 'My God! Why do we all have to be the same color? Puerto Ricans are French and Spanish…' And it's true, we are very many different colors, we're Taino Indian, we are Black some of us." - Rita Moreno (In the Thick Podcast, 2017)
The Good Neighbor Policy and WWII
During the 1940s, in response to the historical dominance and interference of the United States in Latin America, the U.S. government, under the leadership of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, introduced the "Good Neighbor Policy." This policy aimed to reshape U.S. relations with Latin American countries by promoting non-intervention and mutual respect. The primary objectives were to foster diplomatic and economic ties, encourage cultural exchange, and improve the overall perception of the U.S. in the region.
While the Good Neighbor Policy sought to foster positive relationships, it unintentionally expanded U.S. influence in the region in other ways. This led to complex dynamics and sometimes strained relations with certain Latin American governments, as they perceived the U.S. exerting its power more subtly. Despite the tensions, the Good Neighbor Policy was a big change for U.S. foreign relations, focusing on working together with Latin American countries as partners.
In support of these efforts, Hollywood studios produced and exported films that featured Latin American cultures and themes of friendship and solidarity. They also hoped to recoup some of their financial losses as European markets were closed to U.S. film exports during World War II. The most popular films included biopics and musicals like Twentieth Century Fox's musical Weekend in Havana (1941) and Disney's animated film The Three Caballeros (1945). These musicals "discovered" international stars like Cuban performer Desi Arnaz and Portuguese-born Brazilian singer-actress Carmen Miranda and introduced them to American audiences.
Navigating Political Turbulence and Authentic Storytelling
During the late 1940s and 1950s, American Latinos witnessed a surge in the production and popularity of the "social-problem" film genre. These films were characterized by their authentic storytelling and their unflinching portrayal of real-life social injustices faced by the Latino community. This cinematic movement aimed to shed light on issues such as discrimination, marginalization, and economic hardships experienced by American Latinos.
Notable examples of films from this period include Irving Pichel's A Medal for Benny (1945), which depicted the struggles of a Mexican-American family in a small California town, Kurt Neumann's The Ring (1952), which explored the challenges faced by a Mexican-American prizefighter, and Herbert J. Biberman's Salt of the Earth (1954), a groundbreaking film that highlighted the plight of Mexican-American miners and their fight for social justice.
These films were a stark contrast to the "feel-good" movies seen during the Good Neighbor Policy era. They played a crucial role in bringing attention to the social and economic disparities experienced by American Latinos and contributed to a greater awareness of the need for social change and equality. Unfortunately, this momentum was short-lived due to the Red Scare and the rise of anti-communist sentiment; any filmmakers critical of the U.S. government or thought to have ties to countries like Cuba, Guatemala, or the Dominican Republic were blacklisted.
A Revival of Chicano and Latino Cinema
During the Civil Rights movements of the late 1960s and early 1970s, particularly the Chicano and Puerto Rican civil rights movements, activists fought against discrimination against Latin American communities. They demanded acknowledgment in all U.S. social institutions, including mass media. With greater access to higher education, training opportunities, and employment for Latinos in the U.S. television and film industries, Chicano and Latino creators could tell their stories their way.
Chicano and Latino activists also began producing short films. These activism shorts are considered the first wave of Chicano, Puerto Rican, and Cuban-American cinema. These early activist-filmmakers, many of whom were also the first Latinos admitted to film schools, included Moctesuma Esparza, Sylvia Morales, Jesus Salvador Treviño, Susan Racho, and Luis Valdez. These films were often anti-Hollywood and shunned industry-wide, historically stereotypical portrayals of Chicano and Latino characters and emphasized pride in people and culture. Many early Chicano films were documentaries produced on tight budgets that highlighted social issues and celebrated Mexican-American culture and identity. These films included Valdez's I Am Joaquin (1969), David Garcia's Requiem 29 (1971), Treviño's Yo Soy Chicano (1972), Racho's Garment Workers (1975), and Morales' Chicana (1979).
Gaining Traction in the 1980s, the "Decade of the Hispanic"
In the 1980s, filmmakers from the first wave of Chicano, Puerto Rican, and Cuban-American cinema, like Luis Valdez and Moctesuma Esparza, found their way into mainstream media. Due to new opportunities for Hispanic filmmaking, film representation, and Hollywood's newfound interest in these audiences, the press dubbed the 1980s the "Decade of the Hispanic."
Director and screenwriter Luis Valdez made his big screen debut with the 1981 film Zoot Suit, which was based on his Broadway production about the racially charged Zoot Suit Riots of the 1940s. The film was nominated for a Golden Globe in the Best Motion Picture - Comedy or Musical category and was recognized for cultural significance by being added to the National Film Registry in 2019. Valdez also wrote and directed La Bamba (1987), a biopic about Ritchie Valens, which starred Lou Diamond Phillips in his first leading role. La Bamba also received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Motion Picture - Comedy or Musical and was added to the National Film Preservation Board's National Film Registry in 2017.
Producer Moctesuma Esparza gained widespread acclaim for his compelling documentary Agueda Martinez: Our People, Our Country (1977), which earned him an Academy Award nomination for Best Documentary, Short Subject. Esparza's impressive portfolio also includes producing critically acclaimed hits such as The Milagro Beanfield War (1988), Gettysburg (1993), Selena (1997), and Introducing Dorothy Dandridge (1999).
In addition to Valdez's Zoot Suit (1981) and La Bomba (1987), major studio productions from this period that contributed to a greater portrayal of Hispanic culture in mainstream media included Gregory Nava's El Norte (1983), Leon Ichaso's Crossover Dreams (1985), Cheech Marin's Born in East L.A. (1987), and Ramón Menéndez's Stand and Deliver (1988). Each of these films played a crucial role in representing the experiences and stories of the Hispanic communities to a broader audience.
Hollywood's Evolving Legacy: Echoes of the 1920s in Modern Cinema
The 1990s and early 2000s continued seeing progress in Hispanic storytelling within the film industry. This period represented a crucial turning point in acknowledging and embracing diverse Hispanic cultures and perspectives. For example, the first use of the term Latinx appeared in the early 21st century, which is the gender-neutral alternative to Latina or Latino. It's believed to have originated in queer Latinx online communities as a way to challenge the gender binary and counter the machismo of Latino culture. While there is criticism for the term Latinx, it also represents an early acknowledgment of the intersectionality of these communities within the mainstream media.
Several noteworthy films contributed to this cultural renaissance, including Robert Rodriguez's El Mariachi (1991), Edward James Olmos' American Me (1992), Gregory Nava's Mi Familia (1995) and Selena (1997), Alfonso Cuarón's Y tu mamá también (2001), and Patricia Cardoso's Real Women Have Curves (2002). These films explored the intricacies and depth of Latino experiences, making a lasting impact on both audiences and critics.
Moreover, this renewed interest in Hispanic storytelling facilitated the emergence of a new generation of Hollywood film stars of Hispanic and Latinx descent. Performers like Javier Bardem, Benjamín Bratt, Rosario Dawson, Salma Hayek, Jay Hernandez, John Leguizamo, Jennifer Lopez, Michael Peña, Michelle Rodriguez, Zoe Saldaña, and Benicio del Toro have not only brought depth and authenticity to their portrayals but have also contributed to the diversification of mainstream cinema. This movement mirrored the revitalization of Latino representation in Hollywood during the 1920s, signifying a continued and evolving legacy of Hispanic and Latinx storytelling in the film industry.
Hollywood's Ongoing Struggle with Hispanic and Latinx Representation
Unfortunately, like most minority groups, representation in Hollywood has been severely lacking and inconsistent. According to a 2021 study released by the USC Annenberg Inclusion Initiative, an analysis of the top 1,300 box office films from 2007 to 2019 showed that approximately 5% of speaking characters in these films were Hispanic or Latinx.
Of these characters, only 3.5% were leads or co-leads in their respective films. The study also concluded that Hispanic or Latinx characters are often plagued by stereotypes like "the foreigner" or "the criminal." In 2019, of the 94 Hispanic or Latinx characters featured in top box office films, 8.5% were immigrants, 37.2% did not speak English, and 30.5% spoke English with an accent. That same year, top-billed Hispanic or Latinx characters were characterized as criminals (39.5%), in organized crime (6.7%), or involved with a violent crime (40%).
Behind the camera is the same story: a lack of representation and resources. Across the 1,300 top-grossing films from these 13 years represented in the study, only 35 directors were Hispanic, and just three were women. Hispanic casting directors made up only 3.3% of the industry, while Hispanic producers accounted for 3%.
Another problem facing Hispanic and Latinx representation in film is a lack of intersectionality and diversity. The Inclusion Initiative's study found that of the top 100 highest-grossing films in 2019, only five featured a Hispanic or Latinx character with a disability, and only two films included an LGBTQ+ Hispanic or Latinx character. Moreover, from 2007 to 2019, encompassing 1,300 top-grossing films, only six lead or co-lead roles were portrayed by Afro-Latino actors, with three of these roles occurring in 2019.
In 2021, the film adaptation of Lin-Manuel Miranda's acclaimed Broadway musical, In the Heights, came under fire for its lack of representation and diversity. The controversy revolved around the limited presence of Afro-Latino actors in the main cast, which led to accusations of "colorism." Many critics argued that by not including more Afro-Latinx actors, the filmmakers failed to accurately portray the predominantly Afro-Latinx community that the story is based on. This absence was seen as an erasure of the Black Latinx experience in a neighborhood where the real-life population is predominantly Afro-Latinx.
While filmmakers in the late 2010s and early 2020s have made basic attempts to feature intersectionality and diverse Latinx characters in their films—like Miles Morales in Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse (2018), Detective Renee Montoya in Birds of Prey (2020), and Camilo, Félix, Antonio, and Dolores in Encanto (2021)—representation is still woefully insufficient. This lack of diverse representation underscores the need for greater inclusion and recognition of the intersectional identities within the Hispanic and Latinx communities in film.
A Path Forward
To counteract these troubling statistics and encourage actionable change, the Inclusion Initiative recommends:
Talent agencies and casting directors can cast a wider net to recruit and sign Hispanic and Latinx talent.
Studios and production companies can adjust their casting processes to ensure representation in small and large roles and ensure that new directors from Hispanic or Latinx backgrounds are considered for top projects.
Film festivals and nonprofits can support or create initiatives that specifically target and nurture Hispanic and Latinx creatives.
Legislators can create tax incentives for productions with Hispanic and Latinx individuals above the line and fund arts education that promotes filmmaking as part of the curriculum to reach potential filmmakers at a younger age.
Despite these discouraging statistics, it is important to note that there are films with positive Hispanic and Latinx representation—we, as an audience, just need more. Audiences and younger generations of filmmakers need to see greater inclusivity both in front of and behind the camera, not just sporadically but consistently. This means more diverse stories and characters being showcased, as well as increased opportunities for Hispanic and Latinx individuals in all aspects of film production.
As we celebrate National Hispanic Heritage Month, it's clear that the history of Hispanic and Latinx representation in film is rich, complex, and ever-evolving. From Hollywood's early days, which relied heavily on and perpetuated stereotypes, to the groundbreaking works of contemporary filmmakers, the journey toward authentic representation has been a long one. While there have been strides, the road ahead still demands greater inclusivity, intersectionality, and a commitment to showcasing diverse stories.
Whether it's by supporting Hispanic filmmakers, demanding better representation in Hollywood, or simply choosing to watch films that authentically reflect these communities, we all have a part to play in advocating for a future where Hispanic and Latinx voices are seen, heard, and celebrated on screen. Let's keep the momentum going, and here's to more stories that genuinely capture the vibrant, multifaceted realities of Hispanic communities!
Thanks for taking the time to read and celebrate the history of Hispanic representation in film. Remember to leave your recommendations of positive Hispanic and Latinx filmmakers because I'd love to watch them! The best way to combat stereotyping and encourage change is by supporting authentic storytellers and their art.
And if you're looking for some film suggestions for your next movie marathon, check out 15 Great Films You Can Stream to Celebrate National Hispanic Heritage Month!
Learn more about the history of Hispanic cinema here:
National Hispanic/Latinx Heritage Month:
History of Hispanic Cinema:
The Bronze Screen: Chicana and Chicano Film Culture (1993) by Rosa-Linda Fregoso
"Early Cinema and Modernity in Latin America" (2000) by Ana M. López
Visible Nations: Latin American Cinema and Video (2000) by Chon A. Noriega
Latino Images in Film: Stereotypes, Subversion, and Resistance (2009) by Charles Ramírez Berg
Contemporary Hispanic & Latinx Cinema: